Theory of the 1970s and minimalism Essay Example for Free

Theory of the 1970s and minimalism Essay The Extended and the minimalism in the generative tradition are notions used in linguistics which explains different aspects of the language. The Extended Standard Theory was formulated in the late 1960s to early 1970s and specifically in 1965 to 1973 (Chomsky, 1965) while the minimalism started way back in the 1950s. They have both been used over time by learners in different times for criticism and for learning and understanding linguistics. The Extended Standard Theory has two features namely the syntactic constraints and the generalized phrase features also known as the X-bar theory. The X-bar theory is a linguistics theory component which attempts to identify syntactic features common to all languages. It explains that all languages have some certain shared structural similarities, including the ‘X-bar’ which does not appear in traditional phrase. On contrary, Chomsky (1995) discussed how minimalist approaches to phrase structure have resulted in ‘Bare Phrase Structure’ which attempts to eliminate X-bar Theory. Therefore in as much as the Extended Standard Theory uses the X-bar theory to explain syntactic features common to all languages, the minimalism in the generative tradition explains that all languages have some certain shared structural similarities. Minimalism program is a much transformational grammar inspired by Chomsky. The program aims at the further development of ideas involving economy of derivation and economy of representation which had become important earlier. Economy of derivation in this aspect is a principle stating movements and occurs in order to match interpretable features with uninterruptable features such as inflection. Inflection is also referred to as inflexion and helps modify word forms to handle grammatical relations and relational categories such as tense, gender, case or mood. The principle of economy of representation is that structures must exist for a purpose and should satisfy constraints. Another aspect of minimalism thought is the idea that, the derivation of synaptic structures should be uniform in that rules should not be stipulated as applying at arbitrary points in a derivation, but instead applies throughout derivations. Minimalism in the generative tradition also tries to give a distinction of deep structure of a linguistic expression with a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. The Extended Standard Theory on the other hand does not describe any of the two derivations but works with syntactic constraints and the generalized phrase features. The usage of the term ‘transformation’ in linguistics refers to a rule that takes an input typically called the Deep Structure (in the Standard Theory) or D-structure (in the Extended Standard Theory or government and binding theory) and changes it in some restricted way to result in a Surface Structure (or S-structure). An example of a transformation in TG is the operation of subject-auxiliary inversion. Subject- auxiliary in English occurs when an auxiliary verb precedes a subject. By the time of the Extended Standard Theory in the 1970s, due to the work of Joseph Emonds on structure preservation, transformations came to be viewed as holding over the trees. By the late 1980s at the end of the government and binding theory, transformation were viewed not as mere structure changing operations but as ways to add information to already existing trees by coping constituents. Earlier there was a conception that transformations were construction- specific devices but this was made clearer s discussed above. The minimalist program on the other hand was a radical revision of the theory. The Extended structural Theory emphasizes on the importance of modern formal mathematical devices in the development of grammatical theory. The minimalism in the generative tradition on the other hand does not emphasize on the importance of formal mathematical devices. The generative tradition is a technical as it is well understood that linguistic processes are in some sense creative for expressing a system of recursive processes. The focus is has been made on the deep and surface structures. The deep structure seeks to unify several related structures while the surface structure is derived from the deep structure by transformational rules. In the Extended Standard Theory, more technically sophisticated proposals about the structure of language have been made. This theory argues that all languages are presumed to follow the same set of rules which may vary depending on the values of certain universal linguistic parameters. In a 1983 article, Newmeyer discussed how, this assumption is very strong and brings the big difference between the two theories of language. Minimalism has the idea that the derivation of syntactic structures should be uniform. This means that rules should not be stipulated as applying at arbitrary points in a derivation, but instead applies throughout derivations. Minimalism ideas and approaches to phrase structure have resulted in an attempt to eliminate x-bar theory. In conclusion, both notions; The Extended Standard Theory and the minimalism generative tradition may be somewhat vague and indeed the precise formulation of these principles is controversial. The practicability of these notions should be further evaluated regarding their success. None of the two should be undermined since both have some importance and are of help in understanding linguistics. References Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge: MIT Press. Chomsky, N. (1995). The Minimalist Program. Cambridge: MIT Press. Hawkins, J. A. (1983). Word Order Universals. New York: Academic Press. Jackendoff, R. (1974). Semantic Interpretation in Generative Grammar. Cambridge: MIT Press. Newmeyer, F. J. (1983). Grammatical Theory. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

The Whole Towns Sleeping and Terribly Strange Bed Essay -- English Li

The Whole Town's Sleeping and Terribly Strange Bed In this essay I will be comparing two (2) short stories 'The Whole Town's sleeping' by Ray Bradbury (1950) and 'A Terribly Strange Bed' by Wilkie Collins (1856). Both stories are about fear and they make us feel fear or are supposed to; they make the reader scared or frightened. Both stories have the same purpose, which is so scare the reader. I am going to compare the way Ray Bradbury and Wilkie Collins create tension, suspense, mood and tone. In the first few lines of 'The Whole Town's Sleeping', the author describes the setting for the story, "the little town was deep far away from everything, kept to itself by a river and a forest and a ravine", but before that he mentions that it is nighttime. Both stories are set at nighttime. This is because if it were set in the daytime it simply wouldn't be scary. The whole town wouldn't be sleeping and the narrator wouldn't need a terribly strange bed to sleep in. Collins has a different approach for the beginning of 'A Terribly Strange Bed', he describes the characters and what they were doing, which gives a different impression of the story, it doesn't seem like a scary story at first, because there's no obvious signs like in 'The Whole Town's Sleeping'. Ray Bradbury uses recreation to create interest to the story "In the downtown drugstore, fans whispered in the high ceiling air" He also use metaphors and similes such as "There were two moons: a clock moon with four faces" while 'A Terribly Strange Bed' doesn't have any recreation, metaphors or similes in its opening but still manages to maintain interest. Mood and tone are very important in both stories. Using certain adjectives, like "warm summer n... ...appens next. In Collins' story, you are told what happens next, and you finish the story quite pleased, like the narrator would be, instead of still scared like you are in the other story. Both stories are similar and different; the authors use different methods to make the reader scared. The stories have some similarities and others have differences. Ray Bradbury describes the scenery whereas Wilkie Collins describes the characters. Setting seems to be more important in 'The Whole Town's Sleeping' than it is in Collins' story and tension and suspense is used very differently in the both stories, Bradbury uses a sharp shock and then a steady buildup, then a false relief before a final cliffhanger and Collins uses a strange buildup to what seems like somewhat of an anti-climax and then re establishes the tension, for a gentle relief and a settled ending.

Lemurs in Madagascar Assignment

Associate Level Material Lemurs in Madagascar Assignment View the â€Å"Lemurs in Madagascar – Surviving on an Island of Change† video. Using the information found in this video, and in Ch. 5 and 6 of Visualizing Environmental Science, answer the following questions in 25 to 100 words each. 1. What are Madagascar’s biomes? Discuss the major features of at least one of these biomes. Use the textbook for biome examples. A= In Madagascar their biome is the tropical rainforest. A feature of a biome from the tropical rainforest is the temperature; it is usually warm yearly with rain every day.There are 3 different layers to the biome in the tropical rainforest, first being the layer on top of trees, the second layer being on the leaves, and the last layer being on the ground of the rainforest. 2. What changes happening in Madagascar are posing challenges for lemurs? Give details about the sources, time scale, and types of change. A= the changes that are happening are creating many challenges to lemurs is the destruction of the tropical rainforest by humans.Lemurs eat the leaves from the trees, and if the trees are being cut down it is destroying not only the rainforest but the lemur’s source of food. 3. Which types of lemurs are adapting to the changes? Which types of lemurs are not adapting well? Why? A= the lemurs that are doing well with the changes are the ones secondary to the habitats altered by people, these lemurs are called the ring-tailed lemur, they use the crops of the people to find food due to the destruction of the rainforest.The lemurs that are not adapting well are the bamboo lemurs, they eat only bamboo and since a lot of plants are gone they do not have food to eat. 4. What behavioral and physical traits are being favored in lemurs in the changing Madagascar environment? A= well some of the lemurs are able to adapt to the changes and they are studying this type to see what will help them change and also to see if that c hange can be shown to other lemurs. 5. Why might lemurs not evolve to adapt to the changes in Madagascar?A= this can happen is a lemur only eats a certain type of plant and if there is no longer that plant in the rainforest then the changes for that breed of lemur will not be good. 6. Which biogeochemical cycles may be altered by anthropogenic activities on Madagascar, and how? A= this involves the transition between atmospheric gases, soils, oceans and living organisms. Since the humans continue to destroy these resources in Madagascar areas will continued to be effected. Reference â€Å"Lemurs in Madagascar: Surviving on an Island of Change. † Films Media Group, 2006. Films on Demand.

The Civil Rights Act of 1866 History and Impact

The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was the first law enacted by the United States Congress clearly defining U.S. citizenship and affirming that all citizens are equally protected by the law. The Act represented the first step, albeit an incomplete one,  towards civil and social equality for black Americans during the Reconstruction Period that followed the Civil War. Key Takeaways: Civil Rights Act of 1866 The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was the first federal law to affirm that all U.S. citizens are equally protected under the law.The Act also defined citizenship and made it illegal to deny any person of the rights of citizenship on the basis of their race or color.The Act failed to protect political or social rights like voting and equal accommodations.Today, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 is cited in Supreme Court cases dealing with discrimination. Where the Civil Rights Act of 1866 Succeeded The Civil Rights Act of 1866 contributed to the integration of blacks into mainstream American society by: Establishing that â€Å"all persons born in the United States† are citizens of the United States;Specifically defining the rights of American citizenship; andMaking it illegal to deny any person of these rights of citizenship on the basis of their race or color. Specifically, the 1866 Act stated that â€Å"all persons born in the United States† (except for American Indians) were â€Å"hereby declared to be citizens of the United States† and that â€Å"such citizens of every race and color . . . shall have the same right . . . as is enjoyed by white citizens.† Just two years later, in 1868, these rights were further protected by the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which addressed citizenship and guaranteed all citizens equal protection under the law. The 1866 Act reversed the 1857 Supreme Court ruling in the Dred Scott v. Sanford case, which had held that because of their foreign ancestry, native-born, free African Americans were not U.S. citizens and thus had no rights to sue in American courts. The Act also sought to override the infamous Black Codes enacted in Southern states, which restricted the freedom of African Americans and allowed racially discriminatory practices such as convict leasing. After first being passed by Congress in 1865, but vetoed by President Andrew Johnson, Congress again passed the bill re-framing it as a measure to support the Thirteenth Amendment, which had banned slavery throughout the United States. Although Johnson vetoed it again, the required two-thirds majority in both the House and Senate voted to override the veto and the Civil Rights Act of 1866 became law on April 9, 1866. In his veto message to Congress, Johnson stated that he objected to the federal government’s scope of enforcement implied by the legislation. Always a strong supporter of states’ rights, Johnson called the act â€Å"another step, or rather a stride, toward centralization and the concentration of all legislative power in the national Government.† Where the Civil Rights Act of 1866 Fell Short While certainly a forward step along the long road from slavery to full equality, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 left something to be desired. The Act guaranteed all citizens, regardless of race or color, protection of their â€Å"civil rights,† such as the right to file suit, make and enforce contracts, and to buy, sell, and inherit real and personal property. However, it did not protect their â€Å"political rights,† like voting and holding public office, or their â€Å"social rights,† ensuring equal access to public accommodations. This apparently glaring omission was actually the intent of Congress at the time. When he introduced the bill in the House, Rep. James F. Wilson of Iowa summarized its purpose as follows: It provides for the equality of citizens of the United States in the enjoyment of civil rights and immunities. What do these terms mean? Do they mean that in all things civil, social, political, all citizens, without distinction of race or color, shall be equal? By no means can they be so construed. Do they mean that all citizens shall vote in the several States? No; for suffrage is a political right which has been left under the control of the several States, subject to the action of Congress only when it becomes necessary to enforce the guarantee of a republican form of government. Nor do they mean that all citizens shall sit on the juries, or that their children shall attend the same schools. The definition given to the term civil rights †¦ is very concise, and is supported by the best authority. It is this: Civil rights are those which have no relation to the establishment, support, or management of government. Hoping to avoid President Johnson’s promised veto, Congress deleted the following key provision from the Act: â€Å"there shall be no discrimination in civil rights or immunities among the inhabitants of any State or Territory of the United States on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.† 1875 Brings One Step Forward, Several Steps Back Congress would attempt to correct this shortcoming with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1875. Sometimes referred to as the â€Å"Enforcement Act,† the 1875 Act guaranteed all citizens, including African Americans, equal access to public accommodations and public transportation, and prohibited their exclusion from jury service. Eight years later, however, the Supreme Court ruled in the Civil Rights Cases of 1883 that public accommodation sections of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were unconstitutional, declaring that the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments did not give Congress the power to regulate the affairs of private individuals and businesses. As a result, African Americans, though legally â€Å"free† U.S. citizens, continued to face uncontrolled discrimination in almost all areas of society, economics, and politics. In 1896, the  Supreme Court, with its Plessy v. Ferguson decision, declared that racially-separate accommodations were legal as long as they were equal in quality and that the states had the power to enact laws requiring racial segregation in those accommodations. Due to the range of the Plessy ruling, the legislative and executive branches avoided the issue of civil rights for almost a century, leaving African Americans to suffer the inequities of the Jim Crow laws and â€Å"separate but equal† public schools. The Legacy of the Civil Rights Act of 1866: Equal at Last Also founded in 1866, racist terrorist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) soon spread into almost every southern state, largely preventing the 1866 Civil Rights Act from immediately securing the civil rights of African Americans. Although the Act made it illegal to discriminate in employment and housing on the basis of race, it failed to provide federal penalties, leaving it up to the individual victims to seek legal relief. Since many victims of racial discrimination were unable to access legal help, they were left without recourse. However, since the 1950s, the enactment of more comprehensive civil rights legislation has allowed for an increasing number of legal remedies arising from Supreme Court rulings based on the original Civil Rights Act of 1866, including the landmark decisions in Jones v. Mayer and Sullivan v. Little Hunting Park, Inc. decisions in 1968. The passions of the civil rights movement that spread across the nation during the 1950s and 1960s rekindled the spirit of the Civil Rights Acts of 1866 and 1875. Enacted as key elements of the â€Å"Great Society† program of President Lyndon Johnson, the Civil Rights Acts of 1964, the Fair Housing Act and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 all incorporated provisions of the 1866 and 1875 Civil Rights Acts. Today, as cases of discrimination continue to crop up in areas like affirmative action, voting rights, reproductive rights, and same-sex marriage, the Supreme Court commonly takes legal precedent from the Civil Rights Act of 1866. Sources â€Å"Congressional Globe, Debates and Proceedings, 1833-1873,† Library of Congress. OnlineDu Bois, W. E. B. â€Å"Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880.† New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1935.Foner, Eric. â€Å"Reconstruction: Americas Unfinished Revolution 1863–1877.† New York: Harper Row, 1988.Wilson, Theodore Brantner. â€Å"The Black Codes of the South.† University: University of Alabama Press, 1965.Woodward, C. Vann. â€Å"The Strange Career of Jim Crow.† 3d rev. ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.