Leonardo Da Vinci :: Art Science Humanity

Leonardo Da Vinci Leonardo Da Vinci is one of the greatest and most ingenious men that history has produced. His contributions in the areas of art, science, and humanity are still among the most important that a single man has put forth, definitely making his a life worth knowing. Da Vinci, born on April 15, 1452, is credited with being a master painter, sculptor, architect, musician, engineer, and scientist. He was born an illegitimate child to Catherina, a peasant girl. His father was Ser Piero da Vinci, a public notary for the city of Florence, Italy. For the first four years of his life he lived with his mother in the small village of Vinci, directly outside of the great center of the Renaissance, Florence. Catherina was a poor woman, with possible artistic talent, the genetic basis of Leonardo’s talents. Upon the realization of Leonardo’s potential, his father took the boy to live with him and his wife in Florence (Why did). This was the start of the boy’s education and his q uest for knowledge. Leonardo was recognized by many to be a "Renaissance child" because of his many talents. As a boy, Leonardo was described as being handsome, strong, and agile. He had keen powers of observation, an imagination, and the ability to detach himself from the world around him. At an early age Leonardo became interested in subjects such as botany, geology, animals (specifically birds), the motion of water, and shadows (About Leonardo). At the age of 17, in about 1469, Leonardo was apprenticed as a garzone (studio boy) to Andrea del Verrocchio, the leading Florentine painter and sculptor of his day. In Verrocchio’s workshop Leonardo was introduced to many techniques, from the painting of altarpieces and panel pictures to the creation of large sculptural projects in marble and bronze. In 1472 he was accepted in the painter’s guild of Florence, and worked there for about six years. While there, Leonardo often painted portions of Verrocchio’s paintings for him, such as the background and the kneeling angel on the left in the Baptism of Christ (Encarta). Leonardo’s sections of the painting have soft shadings, with shadows concealing the edges. These areas are distinguished easily against the sharply defined figures and objects of Verrocchio, that reflect the style called Early Renaissance. Leonardo’s more graceful approach marked the beginning of the High Renaissance. However, this style did not become more popular in Italy for another 25 year (Gilbert 46). Leonardo Da Vinci :: Art Science Humanity Leonardo Da Vinci Leonardo Da Vinci is one of the greatest and most ingenious men that history has produced. His contributions in the areas of art, science, and humanity are still among the most important that a single man has put forth, definitely making his a life worth knowing. Da Vinci, born on April 15, 1452, is credited with being a master painter, sculptor, architect, musician, engineer, and scientist. He was born an illegitimate child to Catherina, a peasant girl. His father was Ser Piero da Vinci, a public notary for the city of Florence, Italy. For the first four years of his life he lived with his mother in the small village of Vinci, directly outside of the great center of the Renaissance, Florence. Catherina was a poor woman, with possible artistic talent, the genetic basis of Leonardo’s talents. Upon the realization of Leonardo’s potential, his father took the boy to live with him and his wife in Florence (Why did). This was the start of the boy’s education and his q uest for knowledge. Leonardo was recognized by many to be a "Renaissance child" because of his many talents. As a boy, Leonardo was described as being handsome, strong, and agile. He had keen powers of observation, an imagination, and the ability to detach himself from the world around him. At an early age Leonardo became interested in subjects such as botany, geology, animals (specifically birds), the motion of water, and shadows (About Leonardo). At the age of 17, in about 1469, Leonardo was apprenticed as a garzone (studio boy) to Andrea del Verrocchio, the leading Florentine painter and sculptor of his day. In Verrocchio’s workshop Leonardo was introduced to many techniques, from the painting of altarpieces and panel pictures to the creation of large sculptural projects in marble and bronze. In 1472 he was accepted in the painter’s guild of Florence, and worked there for about six years. While there, Leonardo often painted portions of Verrocchio’s paintings for him, such as the background and the kneeling angel on the left in the Baptism of Christ (Encarta). Leonardo’s sections of the painting have soft shadings, with shadows concealing the edges. These areas are distinguished easily against the sharply defined figures and objects of Verrocchio, that reflect the style called Early Renaissance. Leonardo’s more graceful approach marked the beginning of the High Renaissance. However, this style did not become more popular in Italy for another 25 year (Gilbert 46).

President Bill Clinton Essay -- Biography

Bill Clinton William Jefferson Clinton succeeded where no other Democrat since Franklin had. He was re-elected to a second term as President. Clinton also proved most of his critics wrong, surviving the personal scandals that came about. During his presidency, Clinton broke promises and failed in certain areas, but he still had support of the American people. Even after his affair with Monica Lewinsky, the people still wanted him in office. They liked what he was doing for the country and supported him no matter what. Bill Clinton was an important president in American history, even through his personal scandals and broken promises. William Jefferson Clinton, now known as Bill Clinton, was born on August 19, 1946. He spent the first six years of his life in Hope, Arkansas. William Jefferson Blythe, Clinton's father, died in an auto accident three months before his mother, Virginia Cassidy Blythe, gave birth to him. Clinton was raised in his grandmother, Edith Cassidy's home. His mother was often away from home taking nursing classes in New Orleans. It was at this time when Clinton's grandmother taught him to read at a very early age (American President 1). In 1950, Bill's mother married Roger Clinton. Roger was a car dealer and an abusive alcoholic. Bill Clinton attended public schools in Hot Springs, Arkansas. The whole family then moved to Hope, Arkansas, about an hour away from Hot Springs. When Bill was 15, his mother divorced Roger Clinton, only to remarry him quickly after. As a teenage boy, Clinton was obsessed with politics. He won student elections in high school, and later at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. Clinton graduated from Yale Law School and moved back to his home state of Arkans... ...dn't happen, he had a huge impact on Americans, especially economically, and they supported him throughout his presidential career. During Clinton's presidency, the country had one of the longest periods of economic growth in history (Dumas 1). Bibliography Gerhardt, Michael J. "The Impeachment and Acquittal of William Jefferson Clinton." The Clinton Scandal and the Future of American Government. Ed. Mark J. Rozell and Clyde Wilcox. Washington,D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2000. 142-148. "American President: Biography of President Bill Clinton." Miller Center of Public Affairs. Ed. Russell L. Riley. 2008. University of Virginia. 21 Feb. 2008 . "Bill Clinton." MSN Encarta. Ed. Ernest C. Dumas. 2007. 1 Mar. 2008 .

Prom Nights from Hell Chapter Thirteen

Miranda sat in the car watching the power boat disappear on the horizon, taking Sibby wherever she was going. You have no time to relax, she reminded herself. Deputy Reynolds might be headed for prison, but he can still talk, and you know he lied about how he found you, which means someone at Chatsworth knows something, and then there's the question of who put the bounty on your head and- Her cell phone rang. She reached across the seat to grab her suit jacket and tried to jam her hand into the pocket to get the phone, but the handcuff bracelet kept getting caught. She turned the jacket over and dumped everything onto her lap. She caught it on the last ring. â€Å"Hello.† â€Å"Miranda? It's Will.† Her heart stopped. â€Å"Hi.† Suddenly feeling shy. â€Å"Did you, um, have fun at prom?† â€Å"Parts of it. You?† â€Å"Me too. Parts of it.† â€Å"I looked for you after the bomb threat, but I didn't see you.† â€Å"Yeah, it got kind of hectic.† There was a pause and they both started talking at once. He said, â€Å"You first,† and she said, â€Å"No, you,† and they both cracked up and he started, â€Å"Listen, I don't know if you were planning to come to Sean's place for the after-party. Everyone is here. It's fun and all. But-† â€Å"But?† â€Å"I was wondering if maybe you'd want to get breakfast instead. At the Waffle House? Just the two of us?† Miranda forgot to breathe. She said, â€Å"That would be completely fantastic.† And remembering she wasn't supposed to be too eager, added, â€Å"I mean, that would be okay, I guess.† Will laughed, his warm-butter-melting-on-break-fast-treats laugh, and said, â€Å"I think it would be completely fantastic, too.† She hung up and saw that her hands were shaking. She was having breakfast with a guy. Not just a guy. With Will. A guy who wore space pants. And thought she was hot. And possibly crazy. Which, p.s., accessorizing with handcuffs is not exactly going to help. She tried again to snap the bracelets with her hand but she couldn't. Either these weren't normal cuffs or knocking out ten people in one night-actually eight, since she'd done two of them twice-was the limit of her strength. Which was interesting, her strength having limits. She had a lot to learn about her powers. Later. Right now, she had half an hour to find some other way to get the cuffs off. She started shoving things from her lap back into the pocket of her suit jacket so she could drive, then stopped when she saw an unfamiliar box. It was the one Sibby had given her when they met-could it seriously be only eight hours ago? What had she said, something odd. Miranda remembered it now, Sibby handing her the name sign and the box and saying, â€Å"This must be yours.† But with the emphasis different. â€Å"This must be yours.† Miranda opened the box. Inside, nestled in black velvet, was a handcuff key. Are you ready to own your future? It was worth a try.

Casse

Reproduced from 50 Activities for Teambuilding @ Mike Woodcock, Cower, Aldershot, 1988 CAVE RESCUE BRIEFING SHEET You have been called to an emergency meeting as one of your company’s experiments in a cave has gone badly wrong. Six volunteers have been taken into a cave system in a remote part of the country, connected only by a radio link to the research station by the cave entrance. It was intended that the volunteers would spend four days underground, but they have been trapped by falling rocks and rising water.The only rescue team available tells you that rescue will be extremely difficult and only one person can be brought out each hour with the equipment at their disposal. It is likely that the rapidly rising water will drown some of the volunteers before rescue  can take place. The volunteers are aware of the dangers of their plight. They have contacted the research  station  using radio link and said that they are unwilling to take a decision as to the sequence b y which they will be rescued. The responsibility for making this decision now rests with your committee.Lifesaving equipment will arrive in fifty minutes at the cave entrance and you will need to advise the team of the order for rescue by completing the ranking sheet. The only information you have available is drawn from the project files and is reproduced on the volunteer personal details sheet. You may use any criteria  you think fit to help you make  a decision. Volunteer 1: Helen Helen is 34 years old and a housewife. She has four children aged between 7 months and 8 years. Her hobbies are ice skating and cooking. She lives in a pleasant house in Gloucester, and was born in England.Helen is known to have developed a romantic and sexual relationship with another volunteer (Owen). Volunteer 2: Tozo Tozo is 19 years  old and a sociology student at Keele University. She is the daughter of wealthy Japanese parents who live in Tokyo. Her father is an industrialist who is also a national authority on traditional Japanese mime theatre. Tozo is unmarried but has several high-born suitors as she is outstandingly attractive. She has recently been the subject of a TV documentary on Japanese womanhood and flower arranging. Volunteer 3: JobeJobe is a man of 41 years and was born in Central Africa. He is a minister of religion whose life’s work has been devoted  to the social and  political evolution  of African peoples. Jobe is a member of the Communist Party and has paid several visits to the USSR in recent years. He is married with seven children whose ages range from 6 years to 19 years. His hobby is playing in a jazz band. Volunteer 4:Owen Owen is an unmarried man of 27 years. As a short-commission army officer he spent part of his service in Northern Ireland where, as an undercover agent, he received special recognition.Since returning to civilian life he has been unsettled and drinking has become a persistent problem. At present he is a Youth Ad venture Leader, devoting much energy to helping young people and leading caving groups. His recreation is driving sports cars. He lives in Brecon, South Wales. Volunteer 5: Paul Paul is a man of 42 who has been divorced for six years. His ex-wife is now happily re-married. He was born in Scotland, but now lives in Richmond, Surrey. Paul works as a medical research scientist at the Hammersmith Hospital and he is recognized as a world authority on the treatment of rabies.He has recently developed a low-cost treatment which could be self administered. Much of this research data is still in his working notebooks. Unfortunately, Paul has experienced some emotional difficulties in recent years and has twice been convicted of indecent behaviour. The last occasion was 11 months ago. His hobbies are classical music, opera and sailing. Volunteer 6: Edward Edward is a man of 59 years. He is General Manager of a factory producing rubber belts for machines. The factory employs 71 persons. He is a prominent in local society.He is married with two children who have their own families and have moved away from his home. Edward has recently returned from Poland where he was personally responsible for promoting a contract to supply large numbers of  industrial belts over a five year period. This contract, if signed, would mean work for another 25 people. Edward’s hobbies include collecting antique guns and he intends to write a book about Civil War Armaments on his retirement. He is  also a strong cricket supporter. CAVE RESCUE REVIEW SHEET ORDER OF RESCUE -INDIVIDUAL RANKINGS NAME 1 2 3 4 5 6 ORDER OF RESCUE- GROUP RANKINGS NAME 1 2 3 4 5 6 Download

Broken Windows Theory

What Impact has the Broken-windows Theory had on Policing? What about the Future? 02/18/2010 Question Response pg. 118 Broken-windows theory is the thought that when low levels of crime and disorder and deviance are not held in check, then more serious crime is likely to follow (Roberg, Novak, Cordner pg. 102). It was a theory proposed by J. Q. Wilson and Kelling in 1982. The broken-windows theory has had an effect on policing in the past, and will play a role in how policing is done in the future. First let’s look at how the broken-windows theory has impacted policing in the past. Broken-windows theory suggested a way of thinking in the community. Citizens felt safer when police departments conducted more foot patrols in the neighborhood, and felt the police were more aware of the crime that occurred. As time progressed into the adaptation of the motorized patrol, some people felt that the police had lost touch with the community and were not aware of the small underlying issues of the bigger crimes that occurred (pg. 66). Through the theory of broken-windows, a zero-tolerance style of policing was developed. Some police departments, such as New York, implemented the zero tolerance style and claimed that it lowered their crime rates in the mid 1990’s (pg. 103). The police became more arrest oriented and focused on a more aggressive approach to crime control. They would increase their traffic citations, arrests, and increase their contacts with citizens. However, one of the issues with the zero tolerance style of policing is that it can cause some undue harm to citizens. By being to aggressive, it leads officers to become more suspicious of some people even though they may not deserve it, and can to lead to false arrests or abuse (pg. 04). In conclusion, the broken-windows theory has created the zero tolerance style of policing, and has lead some citizens to believe that the police are not in touch with their neighborhood due to the lack of foot patrol. As cities continue to grow and expand, most police departments will not have the resources to devote some offices to foot patrol, w hile having others in vehicles to respond to other calls for service in other areas. Therefore under the broken-windows theory, departments will have to address the issue of the community not feeling safe without foot patrols. Also, understanding that if minor crime is not addressed, the potential for larger crime may follow; this will lead departments to find new strategies to address these issues. Departments will look to work with the community (community policing) in an effort to resolve the issues without delay (zero tolerance). Broken-windows theory has affected the way police departments operate since it was developed, and only through new and creative strategies can it be correctly implemented. Reference: Roberg, R. , Novak, K. , & Cordner, G. (2009). Police & society. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. Broken Windows Theory The notion that serious crime is stemmed from minor disorders and fear of crime was a well-developed hypothesis in the 1980s by James Q. Wilson and George Kelling (Hinkle & Weisburd, 2006). Wilson and Kelling (1982) had coined this theory as â€Å"broken windows†. Broken windows theory states that disorder in a society causes the residents of the society to develop fear (Hinkle & Weisburd, 2008). The authors go on to state that fear is the fueling source behind delinquent behavior, which resulted in higher rates of serious crimes (2008).The main concept of this theory illustrated that if police were to target and eliminate minor disorders through community policing, it would have an overall impact on the reduction of crime rates (Gau & Pratt, 2008). Broken windows theory was not accepted by all, in fact it sparked a great deal of controversy (Wilson & Kelling, 1982). The opposing views of broken windows theory argued that it was too weak because of the lack thereof empirical e vidence proving the correlation between implementation of broken windows policing methods and decrease in crime (Harcourt, 1998).The purpose of this essay was to compare and contrast the two different perspectives on the broken windows theory. This paper shall also conclude whether the broken windows theory can be successfully used within a community policing model. In my opinion the broken windows theory had enough substantial groundwork presented that it was successfully used within community policing. To begin, according to Clyde Cronkhite (2004) the theory was true. Cronkhite connects â€Å"disorder and crime as part of a developmental sequence† (2008, p. 46). The main concept that Kelling and Wilson stated, was that if small minor disorders such as littering, public drinking, graffiti etc. were tolerated in a society than it would spiral out creating more serious crimes (Cronkhite, 2004). Cronkhite (2004) gave reasoning behind their theory stating that serious crimes ste m from criminals assuming that once there was social acceptance of minor delinquent behaviors, the community became vulnerable and were less likely to act against such behaviors. Broken windows entails a process whereby unchecked visible disorder signals to residents that community lacks social control. This assumption is that the law-abiding citizens and the criminal alike are attuned to this signal† (Gau & Pratt, 2008, p. 164). Gau and Pratt (2008) gave an explanation as to why criminals tend to flood the streets when minor disorders are present in society. The authors reasoned that it is because the general public sought shelter or safety off of the streets which in turn allowed criminals to occupy the area (Wilson & Kelling, as cited in Gau & Pratt, 2008).From personal experience in third year of University I attended a midnight street walk of downtown Toronto, which allowed me to draw on the same conclusions as Gua and Pratt. During the street walk it was clear that certa in geographical areas provided an outlet for further crime to exist based on social senses, such as Regent Park. Also, based on physical evidence that remained on George St in front of Seaton House; needles on the floor, graffiti on the walls and empty alcohol bottles not only concluded that this area was a favorable environment for crime, but that indeed some form of illegal acts had occurred.Furthermore, Gua and Pratt (2010) discussed how the perceptions of disorder in a community instilled fear into its members and how fear created social disengagement from the community. The broken windows perspective outlined the cognitive thought behind what individuals viewed as disorders (Cronkhite, 2004). In other words, disorder was always in the eye of the beholder, which in this case was the community. The way the community interpreted the delinquent behavior for example littering, determined whether the community was going to reject or accept it into their societal values.Based on the c ommunity’s decision we must consider an outsider’s perspective on such behavior as well. James McCabe (2008) goes on to talk about how it was not the physical aspect of the act (litter in itself) but rather the symbolism it created that lead to increase in crime. McCabe also stated that if individuals saw littering as a threat to social order, this threat would no longer be overlooked or considered unimportant, instead littering would be viewed as a key catalyst to a chain of negligent behavior (2008).Fear was a result of the negligent behavior, fear also generated attachment to the visible characteristics of delinquency, helping outsiders derive a negative stigma about a community (J. Irwin, personal communication, Oct 3rd, 2012). Tepperman and Curtis (2011), provided an explanation as to why crime occurs based on the social functionalist approach coined by Emile Durkheim â€Å"in order to have a well-functioning society it requires values, cohesion and social contro l† (p. 19).This theory was based on the principal that social problems are socially created (Tepperman and Curtis, 2011), the social functionalist approach supported the original work on the broken windows theory, which stated that minor disorders are classified and looked at based on individual perception (source). Structural functionalist approach established that problems in a society originate from the observation of others’ consequences (Tepperman and Curtis, 2011). In this particular case the consequences of the minor delinquent acts created greater chaos.To combat the growth in crime rates in any geographical area, â€Å"broken windows philosophy entails addressing the minor problems in a community before they create conditions that welcome and/or permit more serious offences† (McCabe, 2008, p. 291). McCabe (2008) also theorized that if you were to control the disorder you could then control the crime. The outcome this theory had on police response was tha t it created the order maintenance policing strategy (Cronkhite, 2004). This was the gateway introduction to community based policing.Broken windows theory demanded that there be community involvement (McCabe, 2008). The positive correlation between community policing and reduction of crime rates, was not necessarily in the affects the police have on the disorder itself, but rather the sense of order being restored into the community through hands on approach (Sampson & Raudenbush, 2004). When the community saw active policing, and a restored sense of community, people began to feel safer within society and were more inclined to help with community restoration initiatives (McCabe, 2008).The order maintenance strategy operated based on a community policing model, which is known as The Ontario Association of Chief of Police (OACP) Model (G. Hanna, personal communication, Sept 26th 2012). Wilson and Kelling’s theory was based on the social science experiment of Phillip Zimbardo, who had studied the snowballing effect on vandalism at the Stanford University Campus parking lot New York City in 1969, once a vacant car was left unattended to (McCabe, 2008).Kelling and Wilson (1982), indicated that disorder and crime have a strong positive correlation based on the yielded results from Zimbardo’s experiment. The first to implement the order maintenance approach was the New York Transit Authority (NYTA) (Corman & Mocan, 2005). The NYTA tackled the Subway vandalism problem head on, they eliminated graffiti, and arrested those who tried to cheat the subway fare system (Corman & Mocan, 2005). Bratton the main leader in organizing the initiative, stated that the theory was accurate (Corman & Mocan, 2005). Bratton went on to explain that there was a dramatic drop in rime rates committed in the subways following this approach, thus backing up the broken windows theory (date). After realizing the positive results of aggressive order maintenance strategy, the brok en windows theory was then put to the test by the NYPD (Corman & Mocan, 2005). The NYPD were also only reaping the benefits from this decision. Deploying this strategy had an impact on the offender’s belief that the risk of apprehension was high, thus the NYPD sent a clear message to the community that law and order prevail over petty and serious crimes (Sampson & Cohen, 1988).Immediately after the implementation of order maintenance, NYPD saw significantly decreasing numbers in serious crimes such as homicide, robbery and rape (Corman & Mocan, 2005), the city ended up reaching its all-time low. Kelling in his later work wrote, â€Å"Both experience and substantial formal research demonstrated that disorder left untended ultimately leads to serious crime†¦ Fighting disorder, by solving the problems that cause it, is clearly one the best ways to fight serious crime, reduce fear, and give citizens what they actually want from the police force†. Kelling 1999, p. 29 a s cited in Gau & Pratt, 2008, p. 167). Another Dutch researchers conducted an experiment that revealed how visible social disorder increased an individual`s temptation to indulge in delinquent behaviour (Kaplan, 2008). A Dutch researcher, Keizer tested this theory by; â€Å"placing an envelope containing a 5 euro-note hanging from a mailbox†¦ when the mailbox was clean, 13 percent of passers-by stole the envelope. When the mailbox was surrounded by trash, the percentage jumped to 25 percent, and then 27 percent when it was covered by graffiti. (Kaplan, 2008, p. 1). It was evident that the presence of litter (minor disorder) increased the rate of crime double fold. This Netherland experiment bolstered the broken windows theory (Kaplan, 2008). On the contrary, these results fueled the debate of whether the broken windows theory was the driving force behind crime reduction in the area. While researchers tried to determine the root causes to a particular crime, the macro-social ap proach shed light on crime originating from â€Å"poverty, unemployment, racism, class conflict, etc. † (McCabe, 2008, p. 92) Kennedy and Moore (1995) believed that the police did not have direct impact on these crime causing issues, therefore no direct impact on crime. Harcourt was the main author to challenge the broken windows theory. He scrutinized the theory as well as the data gathered by author Skogan, statingthat although there were several measures of serious crime (assault, sexual assault, and burglary) available in Skogan’s research, he only disclosed the findings on crime correlated to robbery (Harcourt, 1998). This made Skogan’s work discreditable and biased.Another reason why broken windows was said to be invalid is due to people`s perceptions on the relationship between crime and disorder; whether or not they are separate entities (Corman & Mocan, 2005). â€Å"If disorder and crime seem to be different in the eyes of neighborhood residents, then order maintenance policing may have a fighting chance at crime reduction. If however, the two phenomena merge into one in the minds of those residents, then broken windows theory and its accompanying order maintenance policing strategies will need to be rethought. (Gau & Pratt, 2008, p. 170). Furthermore, the main concept of broken windows theory was attacked. The idea that if disorder is not found frightening, citizens remain on the streets, therefore streets are not being opened to criminals, thus criminal behaviour would not take place (Hinkle & Weisburd, 2006). Interestingly, the studies conducted against the theory have not given much attention to the relationship between disorder and fear, which was surprising given its importance in the model. (Hinkle & Weisburd, 2006).Studies based on broken windows are too inconsistent to be able to draw a definite line as to whether or not the theory was accurate and the possibility of integration into community policing. Researchers have stated that there are statistically better predictions of crime such as community stability and collective efficacy of the neighborhood, therefore police should not focus their time into â€Å"fixing† the broken windows theory but rather dedicate their time to other predictors (Weisburd & Braga, 2007).Consequently, if police were to dedicate their time on the other factors rather than on minor disorders there would be less objectivity in regards to police involvement (Weisburd & Braga, 2007). The authors point out that although all individuals would be in favour of collective efficacy, it was hard to address and improve upon (2007). Making it easier said than done. These other statistical predictors of crime were rational and helpful in regards determining all possible causes of crime, but they were far too ambiguous of concepts to be solved through practice (Weisburd & Braga, 2007).Thus broken windows theory was a practical option, it was applicable to any community and it w as able to be implemented quickly. According to the OACP Model order maintenance policing would be considered as part of the community mobilization and crime prevention sector. This sector allows the police to take charge and impact minor disorders preventing future crime while encouraging community members to get involved, thus transitioning toward safer communities and to the ultimate goal of low need for police assistance (G. Hanna, personal communication, Sept 11th, 2012).In conclusion, the macro-social approaches, lack thereof empirical evidence, relationship between fear and disorder as well as perceptions on social disorders were the critiques made against the broken windows theory. Despite these critiques, the theory proved to be true through real life application. Therefore I draw to the conclusion that it was and continues to be successfully incorporated into the current policing model. If police services in Ontario dedicate more time to target the social disorders visible in our communities, they will help build positive relations in the community.By restoring order in our communities we are another step closer to eradicating serious crimes (Wilson & Kelling, 1982). References Corman, H. , & Mocan, N. (2005, April). Carrots, sticks, and broken windows. Journal of Law and Economics, 48(1), 235-266. doi:10. 1086/425594 Cronkhite, C. (2004, March 1). Illusions of order: The false promise of broken windows policing (Book). Criminal Justice Review (Georgia State University), 29(1), 245-248. Retrieved October 1, 2012, from http://web. ebscohost. com. subzero. lib. uoguelph. ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer? id=50642dd3-c8cc-4a96-aa51-1baee6674c01%40sessionmgr114&vid=1&hid=107 Gau, J. M. , & Pratt, T. C. (2008, May 1). Broken windows or window dressing? Citizens (in)ability to tell the difference between disorder and crime. Criminology & Public Policy , 7(2), 163-194. doi:10. 1111/j. 1745-9133. 2008. 00500. x Gau, J. M. , & Pratt, T. C. (2010, August). Revisit ing broken windows theory: Examining the sources of the discriminant validity of perceived disorder and crime. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(4), 758-766. Retrieved October 1, 2012, from Broken Windows Theory The notion that serious crime is stemmed from minor disorders and fear of crime was a well-developed hypothesis in the 1980s by James Q. Wilson and George Kelling (Hinkle & Weisburd, 2006). Wilson and Kelling (1982) had coined this theory as â€Å"broken windows†. Broken windows theory states that disorder in a society causes the residents of the society to develop fear (Hinkle & Weisburd, 2008). The authors go on to state that fear is the fueling source behind delinquent behavior, which resulted in higher rates of serious crimes (2008).The main concept of this theory illustrated that if police were to target and eliminate minor disorders through community policing, it would have an overall impact on the reduction of crime rates (Gau & Pratt, 2008). Broken windows theory was not accepted by all, in fact it sparked a great deal of controversy (Wilson & Kelling, 1982). The opposing views of broken windows theory argued that it was too weak because of the lack thereof empirical e vidence proving the correlation between implementation of broken windows policing methods and decrease in crime (Harcourt, 1998).The purpose of this essay was to compare and contrast the two different perspectives on the broken windows theory. This paper shall also conclude whether the broken windows theory can be successfully used within a community policing model. In my opinion the broken windows theory had enough substantial groundwork presented that it was successfully used within community policing. To begin, according to Clyde Cronkhite (2004) the theory was true. Cronkhite connects â€Å"disorder and crime as part of a developmental sequence† (2008, p. 46). The main concept that Kelling and Wilson stated, was that if small minor disorders such as littering, public drinking, graffiti etc. were tolerated in a society than it would spiral out creating more serious crimes (Cronkhite, 2004). Cronkhite (2004) gave reasoning behind their theory stating that serious crimes ste m from criminals assuming that once there was social acceptance of minor delinquent behaviors, the community became vulnerable and were less likely to act against such behaviors. Broken windows entails a process whereby unchecked visible disorder signals to residents that community lacks social control. This assumption is that the law-abiding citizens and the criminal alike are attuned to this signal† (Gau & Pratt, 2008, p. 164). Gau and Pratt (2008) gave an explanation as to why criminals tend to flood the streets when minor disorders are present in society. The authors reasoned that it is because the general public sought shelter or safety off of the streets which in turn allowed criminals to occupy the area (Wilson & Kelling, as cited in Gau & Pratt, 2008).From personal experience in third year of University I attended a midnight street walk of downtown Toronto, which allowed me to draw on the same conclusions as Gua and Pratt. During the street walk it was clear that certa in geographical areas provided an outlet for further crime to exist based on social senses, such as Regent Park. Also, based on physical evidence that remained on George St in front of Seaton House; needles on the floor, graffiti on the walls and empty alcohol bottles not only concluded that this area was a favorable environment for crime, but that indeed some form of illegal acts had occurred.Furthermore, Gua and Pratt (2010) discussed how the perceptions of disorder in a community instilled fear into its members and how fear created social disengagement from the community. The broken windows perspective outlined the cognitive thought behind what individuals viewed as disorders (Cronkhite, 2004). In other words, disorder was always in the eye of the beholder, which in this case was the community. The way the community interpreted the delinquent behavior for example littering, determined whether the community was going to reject or accept it into their societal values.Based on the c ommunity’s decision we must consider an outsider’s perspective on such behavior as well. James McCabe (2008) goes on to talk about how it was not the physical aspect of the act (litter in itself) but rather the symbolism it created that lead to increase in crime. McCabe also stated that if individuals saw littering as a threat to social order, this threat would no longer be overlooked or considered unimportant, instead littering would be viewed as a key catalyst to a chain of negligent behavior (2008).Fear was a result of the negligent behavior, fear also generated attachment to the visible characteristics of delinquency, helping outsiders derive a negative stigma about a community (J. Irwin, personal communication, Oct 3rd, 2012). Tepperman and Curtis (2011), provided an explanation as to why crime occurs based on the social functionalist approach coined by Emile Durkheim â€Å"in order to have a well-functioning society it requires values, cohesion and social contro l† (p. 19).This theory was based on the principal that social problems are socially created (Tepperman and Curtis, 2011), the social functionalist approach supported the original work on the broken windows theory, which stated that minor disorders are classified and looked at based on individual perception (source). Structural functionalist approach established that problems in a society originate from the observation of others’ consequences (Tepperman and Curtis, 2011). In this particular case the consequences of the minor delinquent acts created greater chaos.To combat the growth in crime rates in any geographical area, â€Å"broken windows philosophy entails addressing the minor problems in a community before they create conditions that welcome and/or permit more serious offences† (McCabe, 2008, p. 291). McCabe (2008) also theorized that if you were to control the disorder you could then control the crime. The outcome this theory had on police response was tha t it created the order maintenance policing strategy (Cronkhite, 2004). This was the gateway introduction to community based policing.Broken windows theory demanded that there be community involvement (McCabe, 2008). The positive correlation between community policing and reduction of crime rates, was not necessarily in the affects the police have on the disorder itself, but rather the sense of order being restored into the community through hands on approach (Sampson & Raudenbush, 2004). When the community saw active policing, and a restored sense of community, people began to feel safer within society and were more inclined to help with community restoration initiatives (McCabe, 2008).The order maintenance strategy operated based on a community policing model, which is known as The Ontario Association of Chief of Police (OACP) Model (G. Hanna, personal communication, Sept 26th 2012). Wilson and Kelling’s theory was based on the social science experiment of Phillip Zimbardo, who had studied the snowballing effect on vandalism at the Stanford University Campus parking lot New York City in 1969, once a vacant car was left unattended to (McCabe, 2008).Kelling and Wilson (1982), indicated that disorder and crime have a strong positive correlation based on the yielded results from Zimbardo’s experiment. The first to implement the order maintenance approach was the New York Transit Authority (NYTA) (Corman & Mocan, 2005). The NYTA tackled the Subway vandalism problem head on, they eliminated graffiti, and arrested those who tried to cheat the subway fare system (Corman & Mocan, 2005). Bratton the main leader in organizing the initiative, stated that the theory was accurate (Corman & Mocan, 2005). Bratton went on to explain that there was a dramatic drop in rime rates committed in the subways following this approach, thus backing up the broken windows theory (date). After realizing the positive results of aggressive order maintenance strategy, the brok en windows theory was then put to the test by the NYPD (Corman & Mocan, 2005). The NYPD were also only reaping the benefits from this decision. Deploying this strategy had an impact on the offender’s belief that the risk of apprehension was high, thus the NYPD sent a clear message to the community that law and order prevail over petty and serious crimes (Sampson & Cohen, 1988).Immediately after the implementation of order maintenance, NYPD saw significantly decreasing numbers in serious crimes such as homicide, robbery and rape (Corman & Mocan, 2005), the city ended up reaching its all-time low. Kelling in his later work wrote, â€Å"Both experience and substantial formal research demonstrated that disorder left untended ultimately leads to serious crime†¦ Fighting disorder, by solving the problems that cause it, is clearly one the best ways to fight serious crime, reduce fear, and give citizens what they actually want from the police force†. Kelling 1999, p. 29 a s cited in Gau & Pratt, 2008, p. 167). Another Dutch researchers conducted an experiment that revealed how visible social disorder increased an individual`s temptation to indulge in delinquent behaviour (Kaplan, 2008). A Dutch researcher, Keizer tested this theory by; â€Å"placing an envelope containing a 5 euro-note hanging from a mailbox†¦ when the mailbox was clean, 13 percent of passers-by stole the envelope. When the mailbox was surrounded by trash, the percentage jumped to 25 percent, and then 27 percent when it was covered by graffiti. (Kaplan, 2008, p. 1). It was evident that the presence of litter (minor disorder) increased the rate of crime double fold. This Netherland experiment bolstered the broken windows theory (Kaplan, 2008). On the contrary, these results fueled the debate of whether the broken windows theory was the driving force behind crime reduction in the area. While researchers tried to determine the root causes to a particular crime, the macro-social ap proach shed light on crime originating from â€Å"poverty, unemployment, racism, class conflict, etc. † (McCabe, 2008, p. 92) Kennedy and Moore (1995) believed that the police did not have direct impact on these crime causing issues, therefore no direct impact on crime. Harcourt was the main author to challenge the broken windows theory. He scrutinized the theory as well as the data gathered by author Skogan, statingthat although there were several measures of serious crime (assault, sexual assault, and burglary) available in Skogan’s research, he only disclosed the findings on crime correlated to robbery (Harcourt, 1998). This made Skogan’s work discreditable and biased.Another reason why broken windows was said to be invalid is due to people`s perceptions on the relationship between crime and disorder; whether or not they are separate entities (Corman & Mocan, 2005). â€Å"If disorder and crime seem to be different in the eyes of neighborhood residents, then order maintenance policing may have a fighting chance at crime reduction. If however, the two phenomena merge into one in the minds of those residents, then broken windows theory and its accompanying order maintenance policing strategies will need to be rethought. (Gau & Pratt, 2008, p. 170). Furthermore, the main concept of broken windows theory was attacked. The idea that if disorder is not found frightening, citizens remain on the streets, therefore streets are not being opened to criminals, thus criminal behaviour would not take place (Hinkle & Weisburd, 2006). Interestingly, the studies conducted against the theory have not given much attention to the relationship between disorder and fear, which was surprising given its importance in the model. (Hinkle & Weisburd, 2006).Studies based on broken windows are too inconsistent to be able to draw a definite line as to whether or not the theory was accurate and the possibility of integration into community policing. Researchers have stated that there are statistically better predictions of crime such as community stability and collective efficacy of the neighborhood, therefore police should not focus their time into â€Å"fixing† the broken windows theory but rather dedicate their time to other predictors (Weisburd & Braga, 2007).Consequently, if police were to dedicate their time on the other factors rather than on minor disorders there would be less objectivity in regards to police involvement (Weisburd & Braga, 2007). The authors point out that although all individuals would be in favour of collective efficacy, it was hard to address and improve upon (2007). Making it easier said than done. These other statistical predictors of crime were rational and helpful in regards determining all possible causes of crime, but they were far too ambiguous of concepts to be solved through practice (Weisburd & Braga, 2007).Thus broken windows theory was a practical option, it was applicable to any community and it w as able to be implemented quickly. According to the OACP Model order maintenance policing would be considered as part of the community mobilization and crime prevention sector. This sector allows the police to take charge and impact minor disorders preventing future crime while encouraging community members to get involved, thus transitioning toward safer communities and to the ultimate goal of low need for police assistance (G. Hanna, personal communication, Sept 11th, 2012).In conclusion, the macro-social approaches, lack thereof empirical evidence, relationship between fear and disorder as well as perceptions on social disorders were the critiques made against the broken windows theory. Despite these critiques, the theory proved to be true through real life application. Therefore I draw to the conclusion that it was and continues to be successfully incorporated into the current policing model. If police services in Ontario dedicate more time to target the social disorders visible in our communities, they will help build positive relations in the community.By restoring order in our communities we are another step closer to eradicating serious crimes (Wilson & Kelling, 1982). References Corman, H. , & Mocan, N. (2005, April). Carrots, sticks, and broken windows. Journal of Law and Economics, 48(1), 235-266. doi:10. 1086/425594 Cronkhite, C. (2004, March 1). Illusions of order: The false promise of broken windows policing (Book). Criminal Justice Review (Georgia State University), 29(1), 245-248. Retrieved October 1, 2012, from http://web. ebscohost. com. subzero. lib. uoguelph. ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer? id=50642dd3-c8cc-4a96-aa51-1baee6674c01%40sessionmgr114&vid=1&hid=107 Gau, J. M. , & Pratt, T. C. (2008, May 1). Broken windows or window dressing? Citizens (in)ability to tell the difference between disorder and crime. Criminology & Public Policy , 7(2), 163-194. doi:10. 1111/j. 1745-9133. 2008. 00500. x Gau, J. M. , & Pratt, T. C. (2010, August). Revisit ing broken windows theory: Examining the sources of the discriminant validity of perceived disorder and crime. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(4), 758-766. Retrieved October 1, 2012, from

High School and Lateness Essay

This paper is a review on lateness in public schools, which has posed a major problem to school administrators in Delta State, Nigeria; especially at the primary and secondary school levels. The author delimited his focus on students, staff and supporting staff in the school system. The salient point is that, lateness to schools plagues school administrators, bringing about inefficiencies at work by way of administration. Therefore, this paper highlights the meaning, causes and effects of lateness to schools as related to the school administrator in Delta State, Nigeria. The study also highlighted various remedies to the sordid situation. This review will therefore help school administrators alleviate lateness, a hydra-headed monster plaguing schools in Delta State, Nigeria, and as such bring about easy administration of schools in the region. Key words: Lateness, school administrators, discipline, environment, punctuality. INTRODUCTION Amongst other components of any organisation, human beings are the most difficult to manage. Folks pose the most problems to administrators anywhere in the world, not excluding school organisations as learning factories in Delta State, Nigeria. Many authors have posited as a matter of fact that, it is easier to manage the financial and material components of any organisation than to manage the human component. They insinuate that â€Å"it is easier to manage even animals than to manage human beings† (Nakpodia, 2006; Peretomode, 1991; Peretomode, 2001; Ubogu, 2004; Emore, 2005; Ukoshi, 2004). Thus, in the school system, the school head, which is usually the headmaster/headmistress or the principal, is confronted with numerous problems posed by staff and/or students. These problems include: sleeping on duty, negative attitude to tasks, lack of motivation to tasks, sexual harassment, theft, quarrelling, malice, jealousy, envy, absenteeism, lateness, etc. But Lauby (2009) stated clearly that: ‘As a Human Resource professional, I have dealt with a plethora of employee issues: sleeping on the job, theft, sexual harassment†¦ but I have found over the years, that there is one issue that plagues managers more than all these other issues combined†¦ attendance and punctuality. That is, people not showing up at all†¦ people not showing up on time. It could thus be deduced from the excerpt that in the school system, which is the focus of this paper, both staff’s and students’/pupils’ lateness to school pose the greatest problems to school administrators in Delta State. What then is lateness? DEFINITION OF LATENESS Literally, the term â€Å"lateness† implies a situation where an individual arrives after the proper, scheduled or usual th time (Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary, 5 ed. , 1995). Furthermore, Lauby (2009) puts it as a term used *Corresponding author. E-mail: kosdaf80@yahoo. com. Tel: +2347033941918. Nakpodia and Dafiaghor 59 to describe â€Å"people not showing up on time†. Breeze et al. (2010) contributed by saying that, lateness is synonymous with â€Å"tardiness†, which implies being slow to act or slow to respond, thus not meeting up with proper or usual timing. It is obvious therefore that, lateness could be seen as a system of network breakdown (Peretomode, 1991), a situation of not meeting up with programme†¦ a function of time†¦ time is the criteria and determinant of lateness. Having therefore known the meaning of lateness, the causes of lateness should be highlighted. CAUSES OF LATENESS There are numerous causes of lateness to school. Amongst others, the following are the major causes of lateness to school. Going late to bed This is one of the major causes of lateness to school. Going late to bed could result in waking up late, as could be deduced from the literal meaning of the saying â€Å"early to bed early to rise†. Watching films and late-night movies The individual involved in watching films and home videos may be so captivated and hypnotised by it that, he/she forgets that he/she has to be in school; and at sudden realisation, he/she hurries off and likely may not be punctual (Ukoshi, 2004). The habit of waking up late Some folks find more pleasure in early morning sleep than the overnight sleep. These kind of people always wake up late to hurry off to school but most times, situation may not really be in their favour, thus they are irresistibly late to school. Distance/Location of school The further the location of the school from the student/pupil or staff, the more distractions, obstacles, friends to say high to, hold-ups to beat, go-slows, etc are there that tend to hinder his/her punctuality to school. For instance, consider a situation where an individual working in DELSU Secondary School, Abraka, leaves Eku or Igun every day for work. This individual is likely not to be punctual when compared with some one of the same status living in Abraka, possibly even close to the school; he is more likely to be punctual because the level of distraction would be lesser. Keeping friends of different status Friends and acquaintances that are not of the same status with an individual tend not to understand the responsibilities of the individual, most especially those of lower status. For instance, a teacher spending most of the leisure time with a motorcyclist; the motorcyclist is likely not to motivate the teacher in the aspect of punctuality as compared with a fellow teacher. Engagement in untimely domestic chores/activities These activities are necessary but doing them at a wrong timing is what cause lateness to school. In some cases, most parents even oblige their wards to help carry their goods to the market and other such kind of chores before going to school. Activities like these inevitably cause lateness to school, either voluntarily or involuntarily. Furthermore, Oghuvwu (2008) concurred to this when he opined that â€Å"lateness is common as a result of students’ involvement by parents†. Innate anxiety level Most people always have that relax mind in anything they do; they do not even care if they are running late or not; they just do not beat that their relax temple or mood of doing things. Even when a little hurry could make them punctual, they prefer to be late than beat their innate temple; this is a glaring situation. Family background In some cases, the habit of lateness is being copied from family members. For instance, the child that sees the father always going late to work could also either voluntarily or involuntarily learn the habit, thus go to school late also. This is supported by Peretomode (2001) and Egbule (2004), when they elaborated the concept of NATURE-NURTURE as it affects an individual’s habits. Cultural background We live in a society where the culture does not frown at, or rather say anything about punctuality as ethics in a work environment, thus to most individuals, punctuality is not really a serious matter, compared with how punctuality is being perceived in Western cultures and developed countries (Breeze et al. , 2010). 60 Int. J. Sci. Technol. Educ. Res Religious background Every individual in this world is loyal or faithful to one religion or the other. Even the atheist is loyal to his own beliefs, thus he/she is his/her own religion. Individuals tend to swallow hook, line and sinker, whatever their religious leaders teach, and those which the religious teacher does not teach is considered less or not important by them. The salient point is that, if religions frown at lateness, it would reduce; and if they do not speak of it or speak encouraging it (they may say, no matter what happens, God will always favour you); the tendency is that lateness would be on the increase, most especially in Delta State, Nigeria, Africa, where religion is tenaciously adhered to because of the fear of witchcraft and wizardry (African Science). Lack of functional and effective punctuality policy Obviously, individuals could come late to school, if they perceive that there are no consequences to it. It is a consensus that â€Å"if black man no see strong thing, e no they hear†. This consensus is more pronounced in Delta State, Nigeria, where the probability of misdemeanour and stubbornness is high. Furthermore, school head’s fairness or equal treatment between different subjects, as perceived by individuals, could cause lateness. Individuals are likely to be more punctual, if they perceive obvious â€Å"rule of law† in terms of punctuality (Clackmannanshire Council Online, 2010). Too much body care and excessive facial/body makeup In some cases, individuals are obsessed by their appearance to the detriment of timely engagements in school. Oghuvwu (2008) agreed to this when he opined that â€Å"lateness is common among females more than males†. This could be as a result of the fact that, females require more time for their body and facial care and make up. EFFECTS OF LATENESS TO SCHOOL There are various effects of lateness to school. Many writers have pinpointed many of these effects. Amongst others, some are outlined and briefly discussed as follows. Lateness disorganises and causes distraction to the individual and the whole system The individual that came late to school is both a problem to him/herself, fellow students, teacher, and others in the school system†¦ he/she walks in when teaching is going on†¦ both teachers and students turn to look at him/her†¦ the system and flow is distracted and distorted†¦ he/she thinks where do I start from to catch up?.. asks a fellow student â€Å"is he just starting?.. how long has be been teaching?.. what has he/she taught?†¦ let me see your note. From this simple analogy, it is glaring that the late comer is both a problem him/herself and the entire school system. In addition, according to â€Å"Clackmannashire Council Online†, â€Å"lateness is disruptive to the individual and to the work of the class and may be an early warning of other difficulties†. Lateness inhibits the process of achieving the goals of the school The basic reason for the human component is to enable easy achievement of the goals and objectives of establishing the school. Thus, if the employers’ goal is to make money, and the individual’s contribution to the organisation could bring the school N20 per h. If he/she then comes 30 min late every day, thus N10 is lost every day as a result of lateness. The point is that as small as this, multiplied by the days of the years and a good number of employees with this habit†¦ this would be a very great loss to the school. Thus, Ali (2007) clearly posited that â€Å"†¦ showing up 10 min late could add up to lots of lost revenue for the company (school) and the individual. † Furthermore, ETC’s (2009) attendance and punctuality policy clearly states that â€Å"regular and punctual attendance is of paramount importance in ensuring that all students have full access to the curriculum†¦ valuable learning time is lost when students are absent or late†. Lateness leads to absenteeism and general failure in life Pupils/students and/or staff could sometimes feel the extent of their lateness and very often they just decide to be absent. This has a very great effect on the individual’s academic and other achievements. According to Ali (2007), this could lead to loss of confidence and engagement in premature sexual activity for students, leading to pregnancy, resulting in a phenomenon called storm and stress among adolescents. Also, Catt F found out that â€Å"it is always the same group of people showing up early and the same group of people showing up late†. REMEDIES TO LATENESS 1. Schools should operate strict functional punctuality policy. One of the major responsibilities of the school head is to implement policies and/or even possibly make some†¦ as whatever happens in the system would be credited or blamed upon him. Thus, the school head Nakpodia and Dafiaghor 61 needs to carry out the function of maintaining punctuality policy without favouritism. 2. Staff and students in the school system should be sensitised and made aware of the effects of lateness to them and the entire school system, and also the benefits of punctuality to them first and then to the entire school system. This should be carried out by both school heads, governmental and non-governmental agencies, religious bodies, and other such bodies and individuals. 3. The school administrator must teach punctuality by example†¦ he/she must act as a model for all to copy. 4. School administrators should impose compulsory beginning and closing of the day meeting of staff and students. In the meetings, there should be strict attendance register. 5. School administrators should build in staff and students, the virtue of â€Å"time-consciousness†. For instance, putting wall clocks in conspicuous locations for all to see could instil the time-consciousness attitude in individuals in the school. 6. As an individual, try to be 15 min early to school, as this could help you make friends and say hello to alreadymade friends; get one’s self prepared for the day’s activity; possibly even read a book, and most importantly could help make up for unforeseen causes of lateness, and still be punctual. 7. There should also be activities /acts to motivate and reinforce punctuality. For instance, awarding prizes for punctuality could go a long way in enhancing punctuality. 8. Parents and school administrators should join efforts in enhancing punctuality. UK Government (2010) stipulated that â€Å"on the first day absence, contact should be made with parents of the child to find out why the child is absent†. 9. Truancy patrol†¦ is a situation where members of the community are sensitised to seize or report students found outside the school environment after stipulated times. In this kind of situation, the pupil would likely be punctual since the only convenient environment would be that of the school†¦ if he/she comes late, would be punished†¦ he is then forced to come early. 10. Parents involving students in domestic activities should be mindful of punctuality. 11. Government on its part, should improve transportation and other economic activities in the country†¦ as some students walk/trek to school, as a result of fair†¦ even those that have the fair, sometimes no transport service or no good roads, causing hold-ups and go-slows. help identify and proffer solutions to this quality and disturbing problem that could lead to students’ drop-out from school, and also inefficiency and ineffectiveness on the part of the school administrators, by way of school administration and management; knowing fully well that lateness could be reduced by providing free education counselling and discipline among students, in addition to the use of electronic systems, truancy sweep by school heads. It should also be noted that, lateness is common among female students, and as such they should be of more concern to the school administrator in Delta State. Finally, the remedy to any situation is in the situation; thus, the school administrator, should study the peculiar situation and respond as the situation suggests. The fact is no two situations are the same, no matter how similar. REFERENCES Ali M (2007). Attendance and Punctuality cost companies big money. Retrieved 23rd September, 2010 from: http://bizconvering. com/business-law/attendance-andpunctuality. cost†¦ Breeze S, Woosh C, Batt C, Fine M (2010). â€Å"How to be punctual†. WikiHow: thehow to manual that you can edit. Retrieved 23rd September, 2010 from: http://www. wikihow. com/Be-Punctual. Catt F (2010). The lateness game: Coincidence or equilibrium? Retrieved 20th September, 2010 from: http://expertvoices. nsdl. org/cornell-info204/2010/02/27/the-game-ofpunctuality-coincidence-or-equilibrium/. Clackmannanshire Council Online (2010). Attendance and Punctuality (Secondary Schools). Retrieved 23rd September, 2010 from: http://www. clacksweb. org. uk/learning/attendanceandpunctualityss/ Egbule JF (2004). Readings in Educational Psychology. Owerri: Barlos Publishers, pp. 234-241. Emore C (2005). â€Å"Causes of students’ lateness to school in Uvwie L. G. A. of Delta State. † Unpublished Post Graduate Diploma in Education Project, Abraka, Delta State University. ETC (2009). Attendance and punctuality policy. Retrieved 23rd September, 2010 from: http://www. etc. org/attendanceandpunctuality/policy/†¦ Lauby S (2009). Attendance and Punctuality. Retrieved 23rd September, 2010 from: http://www. hrbartender. com/2009/comp/attendancepunctuality/. Nakpodia ED (2006). Educational Administration: A new approach. Warri: Jonokase, pp. 66-72. Oghuvwu PE (2008). â€Å"Absenteeism and lateness among secondary school students in Nigeria: Profiling causes and solutions. † Academic Leadership. Retrieved 23rd September, 2010 from: http://www. academicleadership. org/empirical_research/384. shtml. Online J. , 6: 3. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English (1995). 5th ed. , Oxford: University Press. Peretomode VF (1991). Educational Administration: Applied concepts and theoretical perspectives for students and practitioners. Lagos: Joja Educational Research and Publishers, pp. 25-26. Peretomode VF (2001). Sociology of Education: An introductory text for Nigerian undergraduates, 2nd ed. Lagos: Obaroh and Ogbinaka. Ubogu RE (2004). â€Å"The causes of absenteeism and dropout among secondary school students in Delta Central Senatorial District of Delta State. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, Abraka: Delta State University. UK Government (2010). Fourteen approaches to improving attendance. Retrieved 23rd September, 2010 from: http://www. education. gov. uk. Ukoshi RE (2004). â€Å"Absenteeism in Nigeria work organisation: A comparative study of private and public organisation in Ondo State. † Unpublished M. B. A. Thesis, Benin: University of Benin.

A Comparison between Jails and Prisons Essay

Abstract This paper will demonstrate the comparison between jails and prisons. A description of jail’s and how corrections played a role will be explained, in addition to the history of jails and prison. Also a summary of the state and federal prison history will explained, as well as the comparisons of the similarities between security level jails, state prisons, and federal prisons. Finally, an explanation of factors influencing growth in jails, state prisons, and federal prisons will be discussed. â€Å"Jails are locally operated correctional facilities that confine people before or after adjudication† (Seiter, 2011). From a correctional stand point, jails serve a range of functions and possess a variety of categories which includes: individuals pending arraignment, awaiting trial, conviction, or sentencing: mentally ill people who are pending their movement to a suitable mental health facility: inmates pending transfer to federal, state, or criminal justice authorities: inmates who are sentenced no longer than one year: probation, parole, and bail bond violators, and juveniles who are pending transfer to juvenile authorities. These categories make the operation of current jails very complicated and require systems, staff, and facilities that are amenable to accommodate those innumerable demands. They have several diverse terms that are used to label facilities that handle these specific functions such as: correctional centers, house of corrections, and detention facili ties. During historic times there has been a substantial difference between federal and state prison systems. State crimes consisted of murder, assault, robbery, theft, and burglary. Federal crimes consisted of white collar crimes, fraud, or treason. Over the past decades Congress federalized crimes such as bank robbery, kidnapping the distribution of drugs, and murder of public officials. As a result of this, there is less discrepancy between the types of inmates in state and federal prisons than in the past. In the late 1800’s, offenders were housed in state prisons if their sentence was for more than one year. After the U.S. Department of Justice was established in 1870, a select official was responsible for the â€Å"care and custody† of all federal prisoners. Although, state prisons became overcrowded, the states became indisposed to house federal offenders and insisted the Department of Justice to establish facilities to maintain federal inmates. This led to Congress passing the Three Penitentiary Act. This act authorized the production of three penitentiaries to house federal offenders. â€Å"These three prisons served the needs of the federal government and housed almost all federal inmates for several decades (Seiter, 2011). The three penitentiaries became crowded therefore; in 1925 Congress authorized the creation of a reformatory for males between the ages of seventeen and thirty. Two years later a federal prison for women was established in 1927. Today the federal prison system is a nationwide system of prisons and detention facilities for incarceration of inmates who are sentenced for federal crimes and for the detention of the offenders awaiting trial or sentencing in federal court. Federal prison camps are established to be minimum-security institutions. These institutions have dormitory housing, low number in staff, and limited or no perimeter fencing. Federal correctional institutions are considered low security prisons. These institutions are double fenced, mostly dormitory housing, and a higher staff ratio than minimum security facilities. Most adult prisoners who are serving more than one year are housed in facilities that are run by the state. â€Å"As of June 30, 2008, the states operated almost one thousand two hundred fifty prisons are holding approximately 1.41 million inmates (Seiter, 2011). Each state adopts its own penal code that specifies what acts are considered felonies, what extent of sentences is available for each category of crime, and what type if sentencing configuration it will have. The state prison system security level classifications are similar to the federal prison system. One key difference is that many states have central reception centers, which all inmates are placed until classified. When the inmates arrive at the reception center they receive a security classification to clarify which prison they will be assigned. The ideal purpose of security classification is to counterpart offenders to institutions that have the physical security and staff resources to avoid escape and control their behavior. Over the past years, the prison population has grown due to an increase in violence and other major crimes. For instance, Louisiana has had over fifty killings this year compared the forty killings that took place for the entire last year. Louisiana’s prison population is crowded and overcrowded at some institutions. â€Å"At mid-year 2002, the population of the nation’s prisons and jails for the first time reached two million† (Seiter, 2011). The growth of prison incarceration continues to grow every twenty years. Over the years, jurisdiction has tried to come up with a solution to solve its jail crowding problem. They thought building new facilities would be the answer to their problems but they were wrong. Many factors influenced that decision including politics and budget challenges. In conclusion, jails and prisons are similar. Prisons are more populated than jails. The reader should understand the difference between federal and state prisons and local jails. Also the history of how federal and state prisons were explained to let the reader know how and where the prisons derived from and how they evolved into what they are today. Works Cited Seiter, R. P. (2011). Corrections: An Introduction (3rd ed.). : Prentice Hall.